This is a portion of Chapter Four on Mines to show a sample of text . There are 30 illustrations available for this chapter
MINES - CHAPTER FOUR
The end of a war does not always bring a conclusion to the miseries suffered by a brutalized civilian population. Even after peace is established, unexploded land mines can haunt a war-weary country for years to come. Land mines detonate when a vehicle passes over or a person steps on them Designed to impede or slow the advance of an opposing military force, land mines often end up doing as much harm to innocent people as they do to armed combatants. Some tragic but interesting facts about mines:
More than 110 million active mines are scattered in 70 countries.
For every mine found and cleared, 20 more are planted somewhere in the world.
It would take 1,100 years to clear the world of mines, assuming no additional mines are put down during that time.
A buried mine can remain active for 50 to 100 years.
More than 130 countries have signed the Ottawa Convention, an international treaty that prohibits the production, sale and use of anti-personnel land mines. Among the countries that have not signed are China, India, Pakistan, Russia, Yugoslavia and, surprisingly, the United States. In September 1977 dozens of nations endorsed the international treaty on a worldwide ban on land mines, but President Bill Clinton said the United States would not sign the treaty. "There is a line I simply cannot cross," Clinton said at a news conference in Washington, several hours after delegates in Oslo adopted the land mine ban by acclamation. Washington had asked for certain exemptions, saying it wanted to use land mines for nine more years on the Korean peninsula, where the U.S. maintains tens of thousands of troops in support of South Korean troops confronting Communist North Korea. Clinton said land mines were an integral part of Washington's defense strategy in that part of the world, and did not pose any threats to civilians since the land mines were in a clearly marked zone. The United States had also asked for an exemption for its "smart" anti-personnel mines that self-destruct over a set period of time and a provision that would allow countries to withdraw from the treaty if they come under attack. The President said the U.S. had already destroyed a significant number of its land mines, and would provide funding for international de-mining programs.
At least 300,000 people have lost limbs as a result of anti-personnel mines, 50% or more civilians. Overall, land mine technology is simple and the cost of land mines very low, usually from $3 to $12 each. This make them a profitable item to manufacture and the market is world-wide. The cost of deactivating one land mine is somewhere between $500 and $2,000. At last count, there were over 700 different types of mines available worldwide.
Land Mines
A land mine is an explosive device that is designed to destroy or damage equipment or personnel. Equipment targets include ground vehicles, boats, and aircraft. A mine is detonated by the action of its target, the passage of time, or by some controlled means. Mines generally consist of the following components: (Figure 2)
1. A firing mechanism or other device that sets off the detonator or igniter charge.
2. A detonator or igniter that sets off the booster charge.
3. A booster charge that can be attached to the fuse, the igniter, or part of the main charge.
4. A main charge in a container or case that usually forms the body of the mine.
5. The casing that contains all the above parts.
A firing mechanism prevents the mine from exploding until it makes contact with, or is
influenced by, its target. Once a mine has been armed, the firing mechanism may be actuated by any one of the following methods:
1. By applying pressure including pressure to a tilt rod.
2. By pulling a trip wire.
3. By releasing tension or breaking a trip wire.
4. By releasing pressure.
5. By the passage of time using some type of time-delay mechanism.
6. By impulses like electrical, vibration, magnetic influence, electromagnetic frequency, infrared sensors, and acoustic.
Types of Mines
Land mines fall into two key categories, anti-tank and anti-personnel. Land-based mines and munitions are hand-emplaced, remote-delivered, ground-delivered, or air-delivered. Hand-emplaced mines and munitions require manual arming and are labor and transport-intensive meaning personnel must exert effort and spend time laying down a mine field. There are remote and air-delivered mines and munitions that require less time and labor; but they cannot be as precisely placed as hand-emplaced mines. Ground-delivered mines are less resource-intensive than hand-emplaced mines. Personnel can surface lay or bury mines place anti-handling devices (AHDs) on hand-emplaced AT mines to hinder their removal.
Methods of Actuating Mines
Different mines are armed in different ways. To arm some mines before putting them in place, the igniter is positioned, the mechanism set, and the safety device disengaged, usually by removing a safety pin. The fuse is the initial component in the firing chain; it has a low-explosive (LE) powder but is highly sensitive. The fuse is actuated by an initiating action. Although mines are issued with a standard fuse, alternate fuses are issued separately for some mines. The four main fuse types are shown in Figure 3..
Conventional mines are hand-emplaced mines that require manual arming. Personnel place the mines within a defined, marked boundary and lay them individually or in clusters. They record each mine location so that the mines can be recovered if necessary after an area is secured or when some combat action is over.
The most common areas that anti-vehicle mines are placed are:
1. On rises and hills so that vehicles, on detonating the mine, will roll backwards onto other vehicles, thus increasing the damage and number of casualties.
2. In rocky areas which will hinder prodding and increase shrapnel effect.
3. Next to fords or on tracks running by a river or gorge so that, on detonating the mine, the vehicle will fall into the river or gorge.
4. On narrow roads with the aim of blocking certain routes.
5. On detours.
6. On roads where water has accumulated, making detection difficult.
7. In sandy areas where laying and concealment is less difficult.
AP mines are generally placed:1. On tracks and pathways frequently used by military forces.
2. Beside trees and other spots which are likely to be used by troops as resting places.
3. Beside trees and other natural cover near the verges of roads which might be used as cover by troops. This type of mine laying is frequently used in conjunction with anti-vehicle mines or an ambush, thus causing troops to leave the road in search of cover.
4. On new tracks made by troops due to the tendency in thick bush to return by the same route.
5. On tracks recently cleared by troops, which leads them to suppose that they are cleared for foot traffic.
Mine Laying Techniques
In most cases, the enemy is well-trained in the art of concealment and deception. Explosive devices are frequently laid with the aim of defeating detection techniques. The enemy will always attempt to exploit the natural reaction of military personnel: tiredness, curiosity, rashness, aggressiveness,, excessive confidence, etc.
It is impossible to give examples of every technique. However, some of the more common methods include scattering pamphlets and literature within a mined area in an attempt to lure the curious into a minefield. Small objects, such as money, documents, equipment (a pistol, for example) left where they are visible to souvenir hunters are common. The placing in the road of some object or distraction that might cause a vehicle to take another route and activate a mine. These objects could be a dead animal, old vehicle wheel, a pool of water, pieces of glass, an area of ground deliberately disturbed so as to look suspicious, or even a small mine, real or dummy, partially exposed.
Anti-Tank Mines
Anti-tank mines are designed to immobilize or destroy vehicles and their occupants. An AT mine produces a mobility kill (M-Kill) or a catastrophic kill (K-Kill). An M-Kill destroys one or more of the vehicle's vital drive components (for example, breaks a track on a tank or blows off a wheel) and immobilizes the target. An M-Kill does not always destroy the weapon system and the crew and they may continue to function. In a K-Kill, the weapon system and/or the crew is destroyed. Anti-tank fuses fall into three categories:
1. Track-width. Usually pressure-actuated, requiring contact with the wheels or tracks of a vehicle.
2. Full-width. Activated by several methods: acoustics, magnetic-influence, tilt-rod, radio-frequency, infrared-sensored, command, or vibration. Tilt-rod or magnetic-influence fuses are the most common. Full-width fuses are designed to be effective over the entire target width and can cause a K-Kill from penetration and spalling metal or from secondary explosions. When a full-width fuse is activated solely by contact with the wheels or tracks of the target vehicle, it usually causes an M-Kill because most of the energy is absorbed by the wheels or tracks.
3. Off-route. Designed to produce an M-Kill or a K-Kill, top or side attack, when a target vehicle activates the fuse with acoustic or seismic signals. When activated, an infrared-sensored, explosive-formed penetrating (EFP) or a shaped-charge rocket warhead sublet is launched; and the warhead acquires the target.
Anti-tank mines can be identified by their warheads:
1. Blast AT mines derive their effectiveness from the force generated by high-explosive (HE) detonation. They usually produce an M-Kill when the blast damages the track or the vehicle, but a K-Kill is also possible.
2. Self-forging fragmentation (SFF) mines use a directed-energy warhead that is designed to penetrate the armor on a vehicle's underside or side. SFF mines are shaped-charge or EFP-shaped-charge mines that concentrate an explosive jet in a desired direction. EFP mines can turn the mines' solid metal end plate into a projectile. SFF mines usually produce a K-Kill because spalling metal from the blast of the mines or from secondary explosions kills the crew.
Anti-Personnel Mines
Anti-personnel mines can kill or incapacitate their victims. The mines commit medical resources, degrade unit morale, and damage non-armored vehicles. AP mines can be fused by pressure, seismic, wire, or command detonation. Pressure fuses usually activate an AP mine when a load is placed on the fuse. Seismic fuses activate an AP mine when the sensor detects vibrations or movement within the search range. Trip wires or break wires activate an AP mine when something disturbs hidden wires. Command-detonated mines are activated by a person when he detects the enemy in the mines' blast area. Anti-personnel mines often look like something other than a mine and are often improvised from other types of ordnance.
AP mines contain five types of warheads:
1. Blast. Cripples the foot or leg of a person who steps on it; can also burst the tires of a wheeled vehicle that passes over it.
2. Bounding-fragmentation. Throws a canister into the air; the canister explodes and scatters shrapnel throughout the immediate area.
3. Direct-fragmentation. Propels fragments in the general direction of the enemy.
4. Stake-fragmentation. Bursts and scatters shrapnel in all general directions.
5. Chemical/flame. Disperses a chemical agent or a flame mixture to cripple or kill the person who activates it. It can also cause casualties in the proximity of the detonated mine.
Anti-Handling Devices
AHDs perform the function of a mine fuse if someone attempts to tamper with the mine. They are intended to prevent moving or removing the mine, not to prevent reduction of the minefield by enemy dismounts. An AHD usually consists of an explosive charge that is connected to, placed next to, or manufactured in the mine. The device can be attached to the mine body and activated by a wire that is attached to a firing mechanism. Some mines have extra fuse wells that make it easy to install AHDs (Figure 4) 4 AHD incorporating a release mechanism). An AHD does not have to be attached to the mine; it can be placed underneath the mine (Figure 5)
Hand-emplaced United States AHDs (Figure 6) These devices use a spring-loaded striker with a standard base, and they function in one or more modes: pressure, pressure-release, tension, and/or tension-release. When an FD is employed as an AHD on certain AT mines, it requires the use of an activator.
Mines do not always look like mines as shown in Figures 7. Often mines are improvised using captured ordnance or any object with an explosive content. (Figure 9)
U.S. Anti-Tank Mines
U.S. Anti-tank mines typically contain around 5kg of high explosive. Most work on a simple blast principle, damaging their target by the force of their explosion. Some contain a shaped charge. A shaped charge generates a slug of molten metal as the mine detonates which is very effective at piercing metal plating, for example
the base of the vehicle which caused the detonation.
M-15
The M15 AT mine is 337 millimeters in diameter
and 125 millimeters high. It weighs 13.5 kilograms and contains 9.9 kilograms of Composition B explosive. The primary fuse well is on the top center of the mine; secondary fuse wells are on the side and bottom. The M-15 can contain a M-603 fuse making it a track-width mine activated by 158 to 338 kilograms on the pressure plate, producing an M-Kill. With the M-624 fuse with tilt rod, it's a full-width mine that is activated by a deflection of 20-degrees or 1.7 kilograms of pressure to the tilt rod. Depending on the armor, this produces an M-Kill or a K-Kill.
M-19
The M19 AT mine is a low-metallic, square-shaped mine that measures 332 by 332 millimeters and is 94 millimeters high. It weighs 12.6 kilograms and contains 9.45 kilograms of Composition B explosive, a tetryl booster pellet, and an M-606 integral fuse. When the setting knob on the pressure plate is in the S (safe) position, the mine cannot function by action of the main fuse. After the safety clip has been removed and the setting knob turned to the A (armed) position, a force of 157.5 to 225 kilograms on the pressure plate depresses the Belleville spring and begins the firing chain. A standard FD may be used with the M-2 activator in any of the secondary fuse wells on the sides or the bottom of the mine. When the M19 is employed, it is difficult to detect because of its plastic construction. It produces an M-Kill with a blast effect.
M-21
The M-21 AT mine is 230 millimeters in diameter and 206 millimeters high. It weighs 7.6 kilograms and has 4.95 kilograms of Composition H6 explosive. The mine is activated by 1.7 kilograms of pressure against a 61 centimeter-long rod on the end of the M607 fuse. It uses an M-S plate to produce a K-Kill. The M-21 with tilt rod must be buried or staked at the 12, 4, and 8 o'clock positions so that enemy vehicles will not tip the mine over. Without the tilt rod, the mine is activated by 130.5 kilograms of pressure on the M-607 fuse and produces an M-Kill by blast effect.
Anti-Personnel Mines (Figure 10)
AP mines typically contain around 40 to 200 grams of high explosive contained within a plastic case. They injure their victim by the force generated by the detonating explosive. Fragmentation mines contain between 150 and 450 grams of high explosive contained within a metallic body. They injure their victim by scattering metal fragments as they explode.
M-14
The M-14 AP mine is a low-metallic blast mine consisting of a main charge or 28.4 grams of tetryl and a plastic fuse with a steel firing pin. It is cylindrical in shape (56 millimeters in diameter and 40 millimeters high) and weighs 99.4 grams. The pressure plate has an indented, yellow arrow that points to the A or S position on top of the fuse body. A force of 11.5 to 13.5 kilograms depresses the pressure plate and causes the Belleville spring to drive the firing pin into the detonator. The M-14 is not designed to kill, but to incapacitate. The M-14 AP mine has been modified by gluing a metal washer to the bottom of the mine. The modification was directed to improve the delectability of the mine. At this writing, unmodified mines are not authorized for use by US forces.
M-16
The M-16 AP mine is a bounding fragmentation mine that consists of a mine fuse (M605), trinitrotoluene (TNT) explosive, a propelling charge, and a projectile, all contained in a sheet-steel case. The mine is 103 millimeters in diameter, 199 millimeters high (including the fuse), and weighs 3.5 kilograms. The principal difference between the M-16, M-16A1, and M-16A2 versions are in the construction of the detonators and boosters. The casualty radius is 27 meters for the M-16 and M-16A1 and 30 meters for the M-16A2. A pressure of 3.6 to 9 kilograms applied on one or more of the three prongs of the M-605 fuse or a pull of 1.4 to 4.5 kilograms on the trip wire will activate the mine.
The Claymore Mine M-18 (Figure 11)
The M-18 Claymore, a directional fragmentation mine, is 8-1/2 inches long, 1-3/8 inches wide, 3-1/4 inches high, and weighs 3-1/2 pounds. The mine contains 700 steel spheres weighing 10.5 grains and 1-1/2 pound layer of composition C-4 explosive. It's initiated by a No. 2 electric blasting cap. The M18 command-detonated mine may be employed with obstacles or on the approaches, forward edges, flanks and rear edges of protective minefields as close-in protection against a dismounted Infantry attack. The Claymore projects a fan-shaped pattern of steel balls in a 60-degree horizontal arc, at a maximum height of 2 meters, and covers a casualty radius of 100 meters. The optimum effective range (the range at which the most desirable balance is achieved between lethality and area coverage) is 50 meters. The back blast area is unsafe in unprotected areas 16 meters to the rear and sides of the munition. Friendly personnel within 100 meters to the rear and sides of the munition should be in a covered position to be safe from secondary missiles. The Claymore has no anti-handling device or self-destruct features.
The M-18A1 version is primarily a defensive weapon. It may be employed to a limited extent in certain phases of offensive operations. The-M18A1 has the same basic capabilities as anti-personnel mines and can be used in most situations where other types of antipersonnel mines are employed. In addition, the M18-A1 has the capability of being sighted directionally to provide fragmentation over a specific area and does not necessarily rely upon chance detonation by the enemy. The M-18A1 is adaptable for covering the ranges between maximum hand grenade throwing distance and the minimum safe distance of mortar and artillery supporting fires.
M-131 Modular Pack Mine System (MOPMS)
The MOPMS is a man-portable anti-tank (AT) and anti-personnel (AP) mine system. The M-131 module weighs approximately 165 pounds and contains a mix of 17 M78 AT and four M77 AP mines. The MOPMS module may be initiated by hardwire or radio control. The hardwire capability uses currently available wire and electrical firing devices. The M-71 hand-held radio control unit (RCU) allows one individual to control as many as 15 groups of MOPMS modules from a remote location. The AT mine has a magnetic influence fuse and a Miznay-Schardin kill mechanism. The AP mines deploy four trip wires upon ejection which initiate a fragmenting kill mechanism. Both the AP and AT mines contain a radio frequency receiver which allows the mines to be remotely-controlled (recycle self-destruct time and command destruct) with the RCU once the mines are dispensed. The factory set self-destruct time is four hours.
The MOPMS would be employed to close lanes and gaps in minefields, at choke points, to reinforce obstacles, to emplace point minefields and for protective mining. If the mines are not dispensed from the MOPMS module, they may be recovered and reused. A M71 remote control unit (RCU) or an electronic initiating device, such as the M34 hand-blasting machine connected to the container by field wire, dispenses mines on command. Once dispensed, mines cannot be recovered or reused.
Operators can disarm and recover the container for later use, if mines are not dispensed. The RCU can recycle the 4-hour self-destruct time of the mines three times, for a total duration of 16 hours (4 hours after initial launch and three 4-hour recycles). This feature makes it possible to keep the minefield in place for longer periods, if necessary. The RC can also self-destruct mines on command.
M-67 / M-72 Area Denial Anti-personnel Mine (ADAM)
M-692 long-destruct
M-731 short-destruct
Area Denial Anti-personnel Mine (ADAM) mines are delivered by 155mm howitzer. They are not deployed on hard surfaces since they will shatter or break when hitting asphalt or concrete. ADAM is an anti-personnel mine activated by deployed trip lines. There are 36 wedge-shaped mines contained in the 155-mm projectile. Minefield density can be selectively determined by altering the number of rounds applied. There are currently three densities: low, medium, and high. The mines are expelled from the projectile (approximately 600 meters) over the designated target. Shortly after ground impact, up to seven trip line sensors are released out to a maximum length of 20 feet. The detonators are armed to fiction in the event of any small disturbance. The ADAM mine has lethality out to 15 feet. Self-destruct times are 4 hours for short self-destruct (M731) and 48 hours for long self-destruct (M-692).
Placing Mines
The method used to lay and conceal each type of mine depends on the method of mine operations, the type of ground in which the mine is to be laid, and the type of ground cover available for camouflage. Standard-pattern mine laying is laborious and time-consuming, but it is more effective and flexible than row mine laying and allows better mine concealment. Standard-pattern mine laying is well suited for protective minefields, and it can be used in terrain where the nature of the ground makes row mine laying impractical.
To achieve the maximum effect, mines must be laid where they cannot be seen and where a vehicle or a person exerts enough pressure to detonate them. Mines with pressure plates will function when completely buried as long as the cushion of earth above them is not too thick. AT mines are normally buried with the top of the mine approximately 5 centimeters below ground level. AP mines are usually placed in a hole and covered with camouflage material. If the hole is only slightly larger than the mine, the weight of the target may be supported by the shoulder of the hole, and the mine will fail to activate. Such bridging action can be avoided if the hole is dug much wider than the mine (Figure 12).
Tilt-rod fuses normally require the body of the mine to be buried and the tilt-rod assembly to be clear of the ground (Figure 13). A tilt-rod fuse is preferred in areas where vegetation is sufficient to conceal the extension rod. Camouflage materials are carefully used to prevent premature detonation or interference with the normal functioning of the fuse. Extension rods are camouflaged before the mine is armed.
Detecting and Safing Mines (Figure 14 and 15)
There are different techniques for detecting, disarming, or destroying mines. None are classified and all require just common sense, patience, and an understanding of how mines work. In some countries, animals are turned loose in suspected minefields. If they step on a mine and it explodes, the mine has been deactivated and is no longer a threat.
A mine can be bypassed, detonated in place, pulled out by a rope or a wire, or neutralized and removed by hand. The method used depends on the location of the mine, the type of the mine and the fuse, and the tactical situation. Trip-wire and tilt-rod mines can be detonated by throwing a grapnel, with a rope attached, past the trip wire or tilt rod and pulling the grapnel back to actuate
the mine. Grapnels may be improvised from any available material, such as a bent drift pin or scrap material.
A hand-emplaced charge is the standard demolition material used to destroy a mine in place A 1-pound block of explosive placed next to a mine is sufficient to detonate most mines. A charge can be placed next to each mine in a group, then the charges can be connected and fired simultaneously.Rope or wire can be used to pull a mine out of its installed position. This is a safe method and only detonates mines that are equipped with Anti-handling devices. It also
reduces noise and cratering. A tripod makes it easier to pull a mine out of a hole on the first attempt. Use the following procedures to remove mines:
Uncover only enough of the mine to expose a handle or a projection. Attach a 60-meter length of rope or wire to the mine or engage a grapnel. If there is no projection, engage a grapnel on the bottom side of the mine, opposite the direction of pull. Never move the mine while uncovering it or attaching the rope because movement detonate an anti-handling device.
First ensure that the covered area is not mined. Take cover and lie in a prone position at least 50 meters from the mine. Pull the rope to remove the mine from the hole. Wait at least 30 seconds before leaving cover and approaching the mine if the mine type is unknown. This guards against the possibility of a delay firing mechanism.
The following technique was supplied by bomb disposal personnel from the Rhodesian Army.
The best protection against mines and explosive devices is a high standard of training and a developed sense of mine awareness. Here are some basic detection and safing rules to assist in
minimizing the danger involved.
1. Only one man at a time should work on a device while the remainder remain under cover.
2. When in doubt, always assume there is a mine present, then call in the services of a bomb disposal specialist.
3. Keep your eyes on the ground when in a suspicious area.
4. Never rush; time saved is paid for in lives.
5. Be prepared for variations of standard mine placing procedures.
6. In potentially mined areas, be extremely cautious and be very careful with any suspicious-looking object.
7. Maintain concentration and strict discipline when working with mines or other devices.
8. Never move over suspected ground without good reason and don't ever be careless or overconfident.
9. Do not be misled or jump to conclusions when the first mines found are not activated or are simulated.
10. Always treat every mine as being booby-trapped
10. Never...
Cut or pull taut wires or cord.
Pull a slack wire or cord.
Simultaneously cut through two metallic strands. If an electric circuit is present, cutting through two wires can complete the circuit and activate the devices.
A magazine called the Rat and Mouse Gazette recently reported that highly trained bomb disposal experts are being prepared to help clear up the world's landmine problem. The highly trained experts are not people, but large rats, imported from Africa and being trained in Belgium. They are taught to locate anti-personnel mines and bombs that litter countries such as Angola and Mozambique. Because the desert rats will be working in countries where they are kept and hunted for their flesh, no ecological damage will be caused if they go AWOL and escape into the wilderness. Scientist Bart Weetjens and his team in Beurne, Belgium, have found the rats to be mostly willing volunteers. Using a regime of electric shocks and rewards of food and water, they are being taught how to sniff out all sorts of bombs, including plastic explosives and TNT. The
rats must locate suspect sandbags and find which ones have TNT inside, using their highly sensitive sense of smell. Some rats will be taught to locate mines, others will be trained as suicide squads to set off the explosives if there is no other way of getting rid of them. The trainers say some of the rats were not eager to learn at first, so they had to persuade them with an unpleasant (but basically painless) shock or two...just enough to get them moving. When they can find explosives, they're rewarded with food. Gradually the trainers increase the difficulty until the rats they can find TNT buried inside sandbags. When they have become good at that, they are move on to suspect explosive devices buried in sand. So far, the trainers have been pleased with the rodents' progress. The benefits of using rats rather than people to clear mines are obvious. Mine clearance is a difficult and dangerous task. The rat suicide squad started work recently, funded by the Belgium government.
Mine Detectors (Figure 16)
These vary from the type used to detect any metallic object buried below the surface of the ground to the more modern and sophisticated type that will detect any foreign matter buried below the ground's surface. The effectiveness and efficiency of these detectors will depend on the standard of operating, type and model and the enemy's efforts to counter their effectiveness. When used by correctly trained technical personnel, they can be most effective, but because of their limitations they should be used in conjunction with other detection methods whenever possible.
Mechanical Detectors (Figure 17)
This type can vary from the flail type to a type of remote-controlled vehicle or device moving in front of a vehicle with the intention of detonating any mine or other type of explosive device that the enemy may have planted in the road or track. Its effectiveness will be determined by the enemy's mine-laying techniques. Instruments like the Smart Probe allow a deminer to tell the difference between metal, stone and plastic buried in the ground. In contact with a target, the Smart Probe sends an interrogating, ultrasonic pulse down the needle. The return echo is digitized and processed to identify the material contacted. In this way, rocks for example, may be distinguished from mines without excavation. (Figure 17A)
Improvised Means
This is probably the most expedient method, bearing in mind the effectiveness and availability of the above-mentioned equipment. This method can be carried out by making use of a prodder or a rake. A prodder can be the standard prodder or an improvised type which is used to prod the ground at an angle or to scratch the surface to detect any hidden object. Experience in the use of the prodder will improve its effectiveness. The rake is the standard type of rake, but with a longer handle It is used to scrape the ground's surface to detect any possible hidden device. To facilitate its handling, it may be equipped with two small wheels.
Users or operators of the above-mentioned equipment must be relieved frequently to avoid the strain placed on them while operating the various types of detectors.
Detection techniques.
The following are the suggested techniques that may be applied when searching for or endeavoring to detect any concealed devices:
a. Visual search. Whatever aid is being used, as an added means, a visual search will improve its effectiveness. The degree of effectiveness of a visual search will be determined by the experience of the person or persons concerned, their concentration, patience, powers of observation and sense of awareness. All personnel must be made conscious of this awareness and not leave the detection to the operators of the various devices only. Here are a few examples of what to look for which may indicate the presence of a buried or concealed device:
1. Disturbed soil or soil with a varying degree of dampness.
2.. Stones loosened or moved from their apparent original or normal position.
3. Smoothed over soil between tracks and footprints.
4. Soil with suspicious-looking debris such as grass, leaves and sticks scattered over the surface.
5. Footprints converging at a point in the road.
6. Knee, hand or footprints in the soil indicating kneeling persons. In this case toe-cap prints will be most pronounced.
7. Vegetation not conforming to its surroundings.
8. Presence of apparent unnecessary cutting of vegetation.
9. Wire or nylon cords, taut or slack.
10. Any type of metallic reflection.
11. Leaves or sticks partially cleaned of normal dirt.
12. Scattered damp soil near wells or drops of water.
Dismounted detection. This method is time-consuming and should it be necessary to cover long distances, a careful appreciation must be made, bearing in mind the enemy activity and techniques and terrain, to select the best route that would require the minimum of this type of detection. Best speed with this method is one and a half to two kilometers per hour. For maximum effect a mine detector should be used in conjunction with a prodder. The diagrams below give a suggested technique. For a normal width road two searchers must move abreast of each other with their search patterns overlapping.
Mounted detection (Figure 18 and 19)
This method can employ the mechanical-type equipment already mentioned, or visual means whereby a minimum of two men, placed as far forward as possible on both sides of a vehicle, search the road for any possible hidden device while the vehicle moves. The vehicles move slowly and will halt immediately at the slightest suspicious- looking sign. This method is slow and places great strain on the observers. Consequently they should be relieved frequently.
Due to the complexity and unlimited number of devices employed by the enemy and the enemy's improving skill in the use of explosive devices, it is advisable that, whenever possible, units have readily available trained technical experts and specialist equipment to assist in the detection and neutralization of the various explosive devices. This is of particular importance when it is anticipated that a unit will be moving through an area that is suspected of being mined by the enemy. Basic mine-clearing equipment (rope, grapple and prodders) should be standard issue to sub-units engaged in ATOPS. It is essential that all sub-units receive training in the use of this equipment prior to being committed to operations.
To develop and improve the awareness previously mentioned, a system must be adopted whereby all personnel are kept informed as to new techniques and lessons learned.
Marking and Destruction (Figure 20)
Once a mine has been detected, it can be marked and reported or destroyed. Mines are reported so more experience personnel can inspect the mine, determine its possible trigger mechanism and decide whether or not it's booby trapped before removal or detonation. Often an anti-handling device is placed under the mine so when it's lifted, the device explodes. This inspection is almost always visual so as not to disturb the device. After inspection, the device can either be destroyed or neutralized. Mines that are new in design are often neutralized and then inspected to determine how they operate. This is information is passed on to other bomb disposal personnel so they can learn how to deal with that type of mine in the future. .
After the mine has been detected and a decision has been made to destroy the device in place, the following steps are taken:
1. Without disturbing the device and immediate vicinity, select the principal charge of the device.
2. Ensure that all other troops are safely under cover or a safe distance away. The minimum number of men must be used for the task, preferably only one man.
3. Endeavor to ensure that the explosion will not cause sympathetic detonation of other devices. Often the detonation of one device will active other devices that are in a nearby area.
4. Clear the area of dry grass and leaves, etc., to prevent the start of a fire.
5. Place the prepared charge. This could be TNT slabs, plastic explosive or hand grenades.
7. Initiate the charge and retire along a preplanned route to safe cover. Prior to initiation ensure area is clear of own troops. When using hand grenades, a long wire or cord should be used to pull out the safety pins. The grenades must be fixed to a stake to ensure they're not moved away from the mine. It may, under certain circumstances, be possible to destroy the device by its own system. In this case it may be possible to cause self-destruction by activating the trigger mechanism from a safe distance, for example, pulling out the retaining stakes or pulling the tripwire from a safe place with a long cord or wire.
Under certain circumstances, the device may be remove to a safe place for destruction or inspection. Extreme caution must be exercised, however, to ensure that anti-lifting devices and/or booby traps are first neutralized or are not present. Anti-lifting devices invariably have a delay fuse, and provision must be made for this when attempting to lift or remove a device. In this case the best method for removing the device is to use a grapple and rope to pull it from its position, then wait to see what happens. A safe waiting period should be used.
Some Mine Laying Techniques Used in Rhodesia
1. Three interconnected mines are connected by detonating cord, activated by a taut wire leading to a hand grenade. Two of the mines are placed in the center of the road and the third on one of the sides where the vehicle wheel tracks pass. Activation occurs by the pulling of a wire leading through the safety pin holes of a hand grenade and connected to a plank covering a concealed hole. Pressure on the plank by a vehicle or man causes the plank to sink into the hole, thereby pulling the wire from the grenade which then goes off and activates the main charges.
2. A mine is placed in the center of the road with its activating mechanism, operated by the pulling of a buried wire, under a wheel track. Under one of the wheel tracks a hole is made and covered with sticks, grass and earth so as to give way under the weight of a vehicle or man. Buried in the center of the road is an upturned clay or wooden pot containing several band grenades, nails, glass and slabs of TNT. One of the grenades is pinned down with a stake and a wire passed through its safety pin holes with the other end passing across the top of the concealed hole to a stake on the far side of the hole. The wire is pulled by the pressure of a wheel or man sinking into the hole which pulls the wire out of the grenade and activates the device. Sometimes artillery or mortar bombs are placed above the pot, almost at the surface of the road, to give greater effect to the mine.
The planting of a minefield along the length of a road generally beings with a pair of mines (one on each wheel track) and then isolated mines separated by three to four kilometers alternating on each track (or simply laid at random) over a distance of 20 to 30 kilometers. However, the enemy will not always lay single mines and may place a number of mines in close proximity to ensure best results.
Common Anti-Personnel Mines
The inherent difficulty of mine clearance and disposal is compounded by the great variety of
mines in use--more than 700 types are known. Here are examples of frequently encountered mines currently found in foreign countries.
PMD-6. (Figure 21)
Originally developed in World War II, the PMD-6 antipersonnel mine is a rudimentary pressure-activated blast device in a wooden box. It has been widely used in Cambodia. As wood rots, the mine mechanism may shift, and the device often sets itself off or becomes inoperative.
The most prevalent of the conventional landmines are the so-called blast mines. They rely upon the energy released by the explosive charge to harm their target, and are normally buried by hand or placed on the ground. The injuries they produce result primarily from the explosion, but secondary fragmentation injuries are possible as the mine casing or surrounding dirt or gravel is
blasted at the victim. Most depend on blast alone for their effectiveness, since the target generally needs to come in contact with the mine to set it off.
MON-50 (Figure22)
The MON-50 antipersonnel mine is a Soviet version of the American M-18 Claymore, a directional fragmentation mine. The curved plate is filled with pellets or projectiles in front of the explosive charge. It can be mounted against a round surface such as a tree or can be placed on a small stand-alone stake. Preformed metal fragments of selected shapes and sizes are shot out by
the blast at a high velocity over a predetermined arc. Sometimes described as the military equivalent of the sawn-off shotgun, the widely copied American M-18. Claymore mine contains 700 steel balls and can kill targets up to 50 meters away. Other types can kill people as far away as 200 meters. Directional fragmentation mines are often planted around foxholes or used against convoys, and can sometimes be activated by a simple remote-control switch.
PFM-1 (Figure 23)
Widely used in Afghanistan, the Soviet PFM-1 scatterable pressure-sensitive blast mine is also known as the "butterfly mine" because of its shape, which unfortunately attracts children who think it is a toy. It has been produced in various shades of brown, green, and white. The PFM-1S version of this mine is one of the rare designs which include a self-destruct mechanism. It explodes 24 hours after deployment.
Igniters (Figure 24) Three types of igniters, which may be used with trip wires or with pressure-activated systems to activate a mine.
OZM-4 (Figure 25)
The OZM-4, a metallic bounding fragmentation mine. A bounding fragmentation mine is designed to kill the person who sets it off and to injure anybody nearby by propelling fragments. The cylindrical mine body is initially located in a short pot or barrel assembly; activation detonates a small explosive charge, which projects the mine body upwards. As it "bounds" into the air, the mine is activated by an anchor cable secured to the barrel assembly which remains on the ground; the cable pulls a pin from the fuse on the mine's body. The resulting blast scatters fragments, some of which may be preformed, over a much wider radius and area than would be possible with a surface or buried mine of similar size.
PMN (Figure 26)
The PMN mine contains a large amount of explosive, and the injuries it inflicts are often fatal. It is designed in such a way that it is practically impossible to neutralize. As a safety precaution for those laying this mine, a 15- to 20- minute delay mechanism is activated when the mine is armed.
BPD-SB-33 (Figure 27)
The irregular shape and small size (about 9 cm diameter) of the BPD-SB-33 scatterable antipersonnel mine make it particularly hard to locate. A hydraulic antishock device ensures that it cannot be detonated by explosions or artificial pressure. It is also exceptionally light, and can thus be carried and deployed in extremely large numbers by helicopters.
Vietnam Anti-Personnel Mine (Figure 28)
This Vietnamese antipersonnel mine is about the size of a tennis ball, and can be mounted on a stake for use with a tripwire or buried just below the surface and set off by pressure.
PRM-2A/POMZ-2 (Figure 29)
There are numerous variations of the PMR-2A or POMZ-2 antipersonnel stake mines, which are generally planted in clusters or rows of at least four units and are set off by an intricate system of trip wires.
Specialized Demining Equipment (Some in the testing stage)
Supersonic Air Spade (Figure 30)
The Air Spade uses a commercial air compressor and specially designed air nozzles to create a focused jet of air at supersonic velocity to excavate buried landmines. The Air Spade has excellent capability to remove soil, sand, and clay from around mines, yet exerts a low enough pressure on solid, non-porous objects such that the mines are not activated during excavation. The compressor weighs 500 pounds, is diesel powered, and is connected to the Air Spade via a long pneumatic hose and nozzle. Backpack, hand towed, and truck mounted concept demonstrators were tested in 1996. The backpack and hand towed systems are undergoing further development to increase system power and the truck mounted version is available commercially from the manufacturer.
Blast and Fragment Container *(Figure M31 Fragment Container)
Because many mines have been emplaced near critical infrastructure or high value assets, the need for protection against the fragments associated with in-situ neutralization has emerged. Blast and fragment containers have been developed to eliminate damage from mine detonations, particularly from the bounding fragmentation mines, and eliminate subsequent minefield cleanup. The containers are 27 inches in diameter and constructed of single length S2 glass dry rolled into a one inch thick cylindrical container weighing 85 pounds.
Chemical Neutralization
Deminers are looking for a non-explosive in place neutralization capability to eliminate the damage caused by fragmentation caused by exploding land mines. The chemical neutralization system consists of a bullet, firing device, and plastic capsule. The bullet and firing device is used
to penetrate the mine case and deliver the chemical (diethylenetriamine) into the mine. The chemical initiates the explosive by the highly exothermic autocatalytic reaction without detonating the mine. This system has been successfully evaluated against mines containing TNT and TNT-based explosives, such as Comp B and Pentolite.
Mine and Explosive Detection Dogs *(Figure M32 Explosive detecting dog)
A dog's nose consists of thousands of smelling-cells and is divided in two cambers. The first chamber sorts out the smell and the inner chamber can classify more than thousand different smells. For comparison purposes, if the ability for a human nose to smell and recognise different smells is like the size of a stamp, the dog's ability is like the size of a football field. A dog is dependent on his nose to separate and recognise much of his surroundings, but a human being has can use all his senses to do the same. Mine detection dogs have the ability to locate mines using their noses. With this ability, they can perform a lot of detection feats that even experienced bomb disposal personnel cannot.
The most common breeds used as mine detecting dogs are German Shepherds, Labradors and Malinoises. Both males and bitches can be used. A good age to select a dog is between 18-24 months. The main characteristics that are important when choosing a MDD is a dog that is open, easy accessible, and co-operative; one that has good search motivation and good ability to find what it searches for; and good concentration during search. The dog must be easy to calm down after a period of high concentration or intensive work and not aggressive against people or other dogs. The free-leash K-9 detection program involves dogs that have been trained to detect explosive materials emitted from mines buried for extended periods of time and trip wires. They alert their handler by stopping and sitting about three feet from a suspected mine or piece of explosive ordnance. Another method involves dogs trained to detect explosive vapors collected from air collection filters placed in mined areas. The method uses vacuum filters that collect air samples in a suspected mined area.collection box samples are collected by vehicular platform or an-portable backpack units and transported to the dogs at a remote location. The samples are inspected by the dogs to determine if explosive traces are present in the sample. If explosive traces are detected, then free running detection dogs can be taken to the area for further nspection. This method is especially useful for rapidly discriminating between mined and mine-free areas, particularly roads and highways.
Explosive Demining Device (EDD) *(Figure M33 Explosive Demining Device)
The Explosive Demining Device is a tripod mounted shaped charge integrated into a simple fixed time delay fuse assembly. This device provides deminers with an ability to clear landmines and some UXO with minimum training. The EDD is packaged in an easily transportable weatherproof cardboard container.
Mine Location Marker
The Mine Location Marker adds a real time marking device to the AN-19/PSS-12 mine detector to increase operator efficiency by eliminating the need for previous marking devices. The Mine Location Marker is a small, commercial yard sprayer with plastic extensions attached to the shaft of the mine detector and a sprayer tip positioned inside the detector's center ring.
Mine Marking and Neutralization Foam
The Mine Marking and Neutralization Foam is a two part, hand dispensed polyurethane foam that is applied to exposed landmines. The bright color provides a quick and easy method to mark mines and dangerous areas. As the foam hardens, it impregnates the exposed parts of the mine
and renders the fuze inoperative. The hardened foam prevents detonation of the mine if a deminer accidentally steps or falls on the marked mine. The foam acts as an adhesive to "glue" rope to the exposed mines so that deminers can then safely remove mines suspected of being booby-trapped. The foam operates over a temperature range of 00C to 400C, is environmentally inert, and comes in packs that can treat up to 40 mines.
Mini Mine Detector
The Mini Mine Detector is a battery powered, hand-held, miniature metal detector. It is designed to operate for 10 hours on four AA batteries, weighs 3.2 pounds, and is based on the electronic module in the AN-19/PSS-12 hand-held metal detector. The key feature of the Mini Mine Detector is that it is small and light enough to be transported in a deminer's pocket, therefore available at all times for emergency minefield extraction. The system can also be operated with an external D-Cell battery pack for longer operations.
Mini-Flail *(Figure M34, M35 Mine-Flail Vehicle)
The Mini-Flail is a remotely controlled utility vehicle that clears antipersonnel mines from unimproved lines of communication and off-road areas that are not accessible to large area mine clearers. The unit includes a commercial line of sight radio control, armor to protect against antipersonnel mine blasts, and a set of rotating chains that are easily replaceable. The system weighs 2,000 pounds and is helicopter transportable. It has a 5 gallon diesel tank and can operate about 40 hours before refueling. The radio control operates up to a half mile line-of-sight and operates on commercial batteries. The Mini-Flail is effective against bounding, tripwire fuzed and simple pressure antipersonnel mines.
Mine Recognition Board Set *(Figure M36, M37, M38 Recognition Board Set)
The mine recognition board sets are accurate vacuum-formed, plastic replicas of mines. The 24" X 36" recognition boards are constructed to depict detailed mine information such as mine dimensions, mine fuzes, and booby trap devices. The boards are painted and detail actual mine color codes.
Shaped Charges *(Figure M37 Shaped Charge)
Commercially available oil well perforators (shaped charges) that contain sufficient energy and resulting shaped charge jets, have been used to cause high order detonation of landmines. A selection of different size shaped charges permits the use of an optimum charge against a given
size mine, reduces fragment dispersion and diminishes the value of these charges as ammunition.
Training Mine Simulants
Mine simulants are accurate full scale inert replicas, capable of reproducing the mechanical functions, metallic subassemblies and contrasting dielectric constants of real mines. These models can be used for mine awareness training and testing R&D equipment.
Tele-Operated Ordnance Disposal System (TODS) *(Figure M38 TOD System)
The Tele-Operated Ordnance Disposal System (TODS) is a device that can remotely excavate landmines via a tele-operated commercial back hoe chassis. The system includes a heavy vegetation cutter and a rapidly interchangeable arm with specialized attachments for landmine excavation. Attachments include an air knife for excavation of land mines, a bucket for soil removal, and a gripper arm to manipulate certain targets. Remote control capability combined with a GPS subsystem and on-board cameras enable the system to be guided to previously marked mine locations.
Vehicle Mounted Mine Detector
The Vehicle Mounted Mine Detector (VMMD) detects on/off-road landmines using a multi-sensor mine detection suite mounted on a commercial remote control platform. This system provides deminers with the ability to detect antipersonnel and antitank mines with minimal metal content using a flexible metal detection array for close-in detection and infra-red (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) sensors for standoff detection. The system also provides the capability to record mine locations using a Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS).
Command Communications Video and Light System (CCVLS)
The Communications Video & Light System (CCVLS) is a rapidly deployable, self-contained video and audio communications system. It enables a deminer to communicate with personnel located at a command post outside the minefield. The command post instructor can provide the deminer with proper instructions, techniques and safety procedures associated with specific landmines. CCVLS is comprised of a Protec helmet with a helmet mounted camera, a perimeter link camera, high gain directional antennas and three easily transportable cases. Two of the cases contain the perimeter link transmitter and the down range receiver/transmitter. The other case contains the command post that is used to view and record minefield operations and to relay information to the deminer. The CCVLS recordings can be used later to train and critique indigenous personnel on proper demining procedures.
Extended Length Weedeater *(Figure M39 Weedeater)
The Extended Length Weedeaters are modified commercial off-the-shelf, hand-held and wheeled vegetation cutters. The shaft lengths are increased and blast shields are incorporated to provide the individual deminer with increased stand-off protection against accidental mine detonation.
Lexfoam
Lexfoam is a nitromethane based explosive foam used as a blasting agent to destroy mines in place. It will neutralize individual mines and some UXO. The lexfoam dispensing system has two configurations: a man-portable back pack unit for use in small or difficult to reach areas; and a truck mounted palletized version for use in large, open areas accessible by commercial truck or equivalent vehicle.
